Key takeaways

  • Cervical cancer affects the cervix, which is the lower, narrow end of the uterus. It may not cause any symptoms in the early stages but symptoms may include pelvic pain, bleeding between periods, and vaginal discharge with a strong odor.
  • The most appropriate treatment will depend on the type and stage of the cervical cancer, as well as a person’s age and overall health. Options include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy. Some people may also want to consider clinical trials.
  • People can help reduce the risk of developing cervical cancer by getting the HPV vaccine, attending routine cervical screenings, using barrier methods during sex, and quitting smoking.

The cervix is the narrow part of the lower uterus, which some people also refer to as the neck of the womb.

The American Cancer Society (ACS) estimates that doctors will make around 13,490 new diagnoses of cervical cancer by the end of 2026 in the United States. The ACS also estimates that more than 4,200 women in the U.S. will die from cervical cancer in 2026.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) causes the majority of cervical cancers. The HPV vaccine successfully prevents HPV.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) initially recommended the vaccine for children ages 11 and 12 years and through to 26 years, but vaccination can be started as early as the age of 9 years. The CDC now advise that the vaccine is also available for everyone ages 26 to 45 years who did not receive the vaccine as a preteen.

This article explores cervical cancer in more detail, including its symptoms and ways to prevent and treat it.

The use of binary terms such as “male” and “female” or “men” and “women” in this article reflects the language of the sources we’ve used. Unless otherwise noted, it’s unclear whether the research we reference included participants with expansive gender identities.

Cervical cancer results from the uncontrolled division and growth of abnormal cells in the cervix.

There are different types of cervical cancer, which are named after the types of cells in which the cancer started.

Doctors also use a staging system to assess how far the cancer has spread and whether it has reached nearby structures or more distant organs.

Types

Squamous cell carcinomas account for up to 90% of cervical cancers. It develops from squamous cells in the ectocervix, which is the outer part of the cervix.

Adenocarcinomas develop from glandular cells in the endocervix, which is the inner part of the cervix.

Sometimes, mixed carcinoma, or adenosquamous carcinoma, occurs. This type of cervical cancer has features of both adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma.

In rare instances, cancer can develop in other cells in the cervix.

Stages

Working out the stage of a cancer is important, as it helps healthcare professionals decide the most effective type of treatment.

A 4-stage system is the most common way to stage cervical cancer.

  • Stage 0: Precancerous cells are present.
  • Stage 1: Cancer cells have grown from the surface into deeper tissues of the cervix, and possibly into the uterus and to nearby lymph nodes.
  • Stage 2: The cancer has now moved beyond the cervix and uterus, but not as far as the walls of the pelvis or the lower part of the vagina. It may or may not affect nearby lymph nodes.
  • Stage 3: Cancer cells are present in the lower part of the vagina or the walls of the pelvis, and it may be blocking the ureters, the tubes that carry urine from the bladder. It may or may not affect nearby lymph nodes.
  • Stage 4: The cancer affects the bladder or rectum and is growing out of the pelvis. It may or may not affect the lymph nodes. Later in stage 4, it will spread to distant organs, including the liver, bones, lungs, and lymph nodes.

Undergoing screening and seeking medical attention if any symptoms occur can help a person access early treatment and increase the chances of survival.

Cancer resources

To discover more evidence-based information and resources for cancer, visit our dedicated hub.

In the early stages of cervical cancer, a person may experience no symptoms at all.

As a result, people with cervixes should have regular cervical smear tests, or Pap tests.

A Pap test aims to be preventive. It does not definitively detect cancer but reveals any cell changes that indicate the possible development of cancer so that a person can take early action to treat it.

Early-stage symptoms of cervical cancer can include:

These symptoms can have other causes, including infection. Anyone who experiences any of these symptoms should see a doctor.

If the cervical cancer has spread outside the body, a person may experience the symptoms of early-stage cervical cancer and:

People should also contact a doctor if they experience any of the symptoms above.

Cancer is the result of the uncontrolled division and growth of abnormal cells. Most of the cells in our body have a set lifespan, and, when they die, the body generates new cells to replace them.

Abnormal cells can have two problems:

  • they do not die
  • they continue dividing

This results in an excessive buildup of cells, which eventually forms a lump, or tumor. Scientists are not completely sure why cells become cancerous.

However, some risk factors might increase the risk of developing cervical cancer. These include:

Early cervical cancer diagnosis improves the success rate of treatment.

The ACS recommend the following as routine screening:

  • Under 25 years: The ACS do not recommend screening.
  • From 25 to 65 years: People should undergo an HPV test with a healthcare professional every 5 years for cervical cancer.
  • Over 65 years: The ACS do not recommend screening for those who have had adequate screening in the past, unless they have a high risk of cervical cancer.

People who have had a hysterectomy with removal of the cervix do not need screening, unless they have had precancerous lesions or cervical cancer in the past.

There are other screening options, but the ACS notes that the preferred option is an HPV test with a healthcare professional every 5 years. Other screening options include:

  • a self-collected HPV test, in which a person uses a collection device and test approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), every 3 years
  • a co-test, which is an HPV test combined with a Pap test, every 5 years
  • a Pap test alone (if HPV testing is not available), every 3 years

These are the overall screening recommendations, but a doctor can advise each person about their screening needs.

Cervical smear test

Screening does not detect cancer but looks for abnormal changes in the cells of the cervix.

Without treatment, some abnormal cells can eventually develop into cancer.

HPV DNA testing

This test determines whether the individual has any of the types of HPV most likely to cause cervical cancer. It involves collecting cells from the cervix for lab testing.

The test can detect high-risk HPV strains in cell DNA before any anomalies become clear in the cervical cells.

If there are signs and symptoms of cervical cancer, or if the Pap test reveals abnormal cells, a doctor may recommend additional tests, such as:

Cervical cancer treatment options include:

Deciding on the kind of treatment depends on several factors, such as the stage of the cancer, as well as age and overall state of health.

Treatment for early-stage cervical cancer, when the cancer remains within the cervix, has a good success rate. The further a cancer spreads from its original area, the lower the success rate tends to be.

Early-stage options

Surgery is a common treatment method when the cancer has not spread from the cervix. Radiation therapy may help after surgery if a doctor believes that cancer cells might be present inside the body.

Radiation therapy may also reduce the risk of recurrence (cancer coming back). If the surgeon wants to shrink the tumor to make it easier to operate, the person may receive chemotherapy although this is not a very common approach.

Treatment for advanced cervical cancer

When the cancer has spread beyond the cervix, surgery is not usually an option.

Doctors also refer to advanced cancer as invasive cancer, because it has invaded other areas of the body. This type of cancer requires more extensive treatment, which will typically involve either radiation therapy or a combination of radiation therapy and chemotherapy.

In the later stages of cancer, healthcare professionals provide palliative therapy to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life.

Cervical cancer clinical trials

Participating in a clinical trial may be the most appropriate treatment option for some people.

Clinical trials are an integral part of the cancer research process. Researchers carry them out to determine the safety and effectiveness of new treatments, and whether they are better than existing ones.

People who participate in clinical trials are contributing to cancer research and innovation.

A person can visit this government resource to learn more about which clinical trials are currently open.

The extent of the spread of cervical cancer at the time of diagnosis can help indicate a person’s chances of survival for at least 5 more years:

  • Localized: If the cancer is localized to the cervix, the chance of surviving at least 5 years is 91.8%.
  • Regional: If the cancer has spread to the regional lymph nodes, the chance of surviving at least 5 years is 64%.
  • Distant: If the cancer has spread beyond the regional lymph nodes and into other tissues, the chance of surviving at least 5 years is 20.5%.

It is important to note that these are average survival rates and do not apply to everyone.

A healthcare professional can provide more personalized outlooks that take individual health factors into account.

A number of measures can help reduce the chances of developing cervical cancer:

  • getting the HPV vaccine, ideally before becoming sexually active
  • attending routine cervical screening appointments
  • using barrier methods during sex
  • quitting smoking

Cervical cancer starts in the cervix, which is the narrow part of the lower uterus.

It often does not cause symptoms in the early stages, but symptoms can include pelvic pain, bleeding between periods, and vaginal discharge with a strong odor.

The most appropriate treatment will depend on the type and stage of the cervical cancer, as well as individual health factors.

Anyone who is experiencing symptoms that may indicate cervical cancer should speak with a healthcare professional.